Analog multimeters have a needle behind a glass window, which moves to indicate the result. Typically, there are three arcs printed behind the needle. These are three different scales, each of which is used for a different purpose:  The Ω scale is for reading resistance. This is typically the largest scale, at the top. Unlike the other scales, the 0 (zero) value is on the far right instead of the left. The "DC" scale is for reading DC voltage. The "AC" scale is for reading AC voltage. The "dB" scale is the least used option. See the end of this section for a brief explanation. Look carefully at the voltage scales, either DC or AC. There should be several rows of numbers beneath the scale. Check which range you have selected on the dial (for example, 10V), and look for a corresponding label next to one of these rows. This is the row you should read the result from. Voltage scales on an analog multimeter work just like an ordinary ruler. The resistance scale, however, is logarithmic, meaning that the same distance represents a different change in value depending on where you are on the scale. The lines between two numbers still represent even divisions. For example, if there are three lines between "50" and 70," these represent 55, 60, and 65, even if the gaps between them look different sizes. Look at the range setting that the dial of your multimeter is set to. This should give you a number to multiply the reading by. For example, if the multimeter is set to R x 100 and the needle points to 50 ohms, the actual resistance of the circuit is 100 x 50 = 5,000. The "dB" (decibel) scale, typically the lowest, smallest one on an analog meter, requires some additional training to use. It is a logarithmic scale measuring the voltage ratio (also called gain or loss). The standard dBv scale in the US defines 0dbv as 0.775 volts measured over 600 ohms of resistance, but there are competing dBu, dBm, and even dBV (with a capital V) scales.

Summary: Find the right scale on an analog multimeter. Make a voltage scale reading based on your range. Estimate the value between numbers. Multiply the resistance reading on an analog multimeter. Find out more about the dB scale.


There different levels (e.g. baseline, standard, and substantive) of copyediting. Lower levels of copyediting are not as thorough and take less time. Standard copyediting is customary unless you have received specific instructions to do more or less.  If you are doing a baseline edit, you will correct errors in spelling, typing grammar, punctuation, and style. Also check that capitalization and spelling is consistent throughout the article. If you are doing a standard edit, you will do all of the activities in a baseline edit, check for consistent style of writing and a logical relationship between the text and any graphics. You may also do some light rewriting and remove redundant and wordy text. If you are doing a substantive copyedit, you will do all of the activities included in the baseline and standard edit with more rewriting. You rewrite the text to improve the consistency, style, and flow of the text. You may rearrange sentences or reorganize paragraphs. You may also change passive voice to active voice. Each manuscript is different and authors have their own unique writing style. Reading before you begin to edit will give you an idea of what the author is trying to say, which will be helpful when you begin editing. As you read through the article you can note any areas that may need more attention.   This initial reading can also help you plan how you would like to tackle the editing process and what the specific steps will be. For example, some edits may focus more on transitioning between paragraphs and ideas while another edit may focus more on grammar and punctuation. Do not make any edits during your first reading. Only focus on becoming familiar with the text. Keep in mind that for short pieces, such as an article or brochure, you will be able to read through the document multiple times. However, if you are editing a longer piece, such as a novel or dissertation, then it is better to plan on only doing one read-through. As you read the text this time, read with a critical eye. You are checking the overall flow and structure of the writing. Ask the following questions as you read:  Is the information in a logical order? Is it easy to understand the information that is being presented? Are there topic specific terms and jargon? Are there unanswered questions? Are there run-on sentences or words that are used too much? Are there smooth transitions between ideas? Is the writing choppy? Go back to the beginning of the text and read each sentence independently. Fix any typos, punctuation, spelling, and grammatical errors that you see. Do not worry about the flow of the sentences or the text as a whole. You are editing one sentence at a time.  It may be helpful to use a hard copy of the text and cover up the other sentences using an index card or another piece of paper. This will keep your eyes focused on one sentence at a time.  Pay attention to the correct usage of parentheses, quotation marks, commas, semicolons, and ellipses. Also look for correct usage of "their," they're," and "there" and other homonyms (i.e. words that sound the same but are spelled differently). Keep a dictionary on hand when you are editing. The text may need to be written in a certain style (e.g. Chicago, AP, APA etc.) or a format depending on where it is being published. For example, if you are copyediting a manuscript for an academic journal, the journal may have specific formatting requirements. If the author is allowed to write in any style, make sure that the style is consistent throughout the text.  Formatting and style affects many different things such as spelling (e.g. catalog vs. catalogue), margins, font, page number placement, headings and footers. Style should be correctly used and consistent throughout the text. When all the sentences have been edited, return to the beginning of the text and give it a final reading. Double-check your work, correcting any errors you may have missed the first time. You also want to be sure that your edits have not created additional errors in the flow and readability of the text.  You may also ask another person to read the text and give you another set of eyes. When the other person reads, have them mark the errors instead of automatically changing them. It is important for you to see what you missed. Remember that you will probably not have time to do more than one read-through on a longer piece, so plan on being thorough with your first read-through.
Summary: Determine the level of copyediting. Read through the text without changing anything. Read through the text from beginning to end. Read the text sentence by sentence. Correct formatting and style. Do a final read-through.