Q: We make a lot of assumptions about almost everything. It's how our brain processes certain pieces of information, and how we get along in everyday life. You could say they are the foundation of our critical framework. But what if those assumptions turned out to be wrong, or at least not entirely truthful? Then the whole foundation needs to be re-built, from the bottom up.  What does it mean to question assumptions? Einstein questioned the assumption that Newtonian laws of motion could accurately describe the world. He developed an entirely new framework for looking at the world by redescribing what he thought had happened, starting from scratch. We can question assumptions in a similar way. Why do we feel the need to eat in the morning, even when we're not hungry? Why do we assume that we'll fail when we haven't even tried? What other assumptions are we taking for granted that might crumble upon further examination? Like assumptions, taking information on authority can be useful. Instead of double-checking everything anyone says, we tend to label information as either coming from a trustworthy or not trustworthy source. This keeps us from double-checking every piece of information that comes our way, saving time and energy. But it also keeps us from getting to the bottom of things we perceive as coming from a trustworthy source, even when they don't. Just because it was published in a magazine or broadcast over TV doesn't mean it's necessarily true. Get in the habit of using your instinct to investigate questionable pieces of information. If your gut isn't satisfied with an explanation, ask the person to elaborate. If you don't question a fact, read about it or test it yourself. Soon enough, you'll build up a pretty good sense of what deserves more research and what you've determined to be true in your own judgment. You've already read about questioning assumptions and questioning authority figures. Now you're about to be told to question...everything? Asking questions is perhaps the quintessential act of critical thinking. If you don't know what questions to ask, or don't ask the questions in the first place, you may as well not get the answer. Finding the answer, and finding it elegantly, is what critical thinking is all about.  How does ball lightning work? How do fish fall from the sky in the middle of Australia?  How can we take meaningful steps to fight global poverty? How do we dismantle production of nuclear weapons worldwide?
A: Question your assumptions. Don't take information on authority until you've investigated it yourself. Question things.

Q: Foods like watermelon, cucumber, lettuce, and broths contain a lot of water and relatively few calories. If you eat these foods before your main meal, they may satisfy you enough to prevent you from overeating. You can also try drinking water shortly before your meal. Sometimes your body mistakes thirst for hunger. You may feel hungry if your body is craving  nutrients, so it's important to see your doctor regularly and get periodic lab work to check for deficiencies. If you do have a vitamin deficiency, take the recommended supplements every day. If you never allow yourself to enjoy food, you're more likely to give up on your healthy habits altogether. The key is to allow yourself to indulge in small amounts of the foods you crave every so often. Instead of eating until you can't possibly eat any more, try to be more mindful and put the fork down as soon as you stop feeling hungry.  Make sure you don't eat too fast, or you might not realize that you have had enough. It's also important to make sure you are actually hungry before you start eating. Try to recognize if you are eating for emotional reasons, or just because you're bored. Once you recognize it, try to replace your snacking with a healthier alternative. Going for a walk can be a great distraction! Try to always be conscious of how much you are eating. Instead of eating your snack out of the bag and losing track of how much you've consumed, place an appropriate portion on a plate and then put the bag away.
A: Eat foods that contain a lot of water. Make sure you don't have any vitamin deficiencies. Don't deprive yourself. Stop eating when you feel satisfied. Control your portions.

Q: Biopsies for testicular cancer are rarely done because biopsies for this particular cancer increase the risk of the cancer spreading. If a tumor is detected via a clinical diagnosis, ultrasound, and blood tests, then the doctor will remove the tumor in a process called a radical inguinal orchiectomy.  In addition to the tumor, the testicle and spermatic cord will also be removed. If you remove the entire testicle, you have the option of getting a testicular implant.  The tumor and other tissue is then sent to a lab to be examined for cancerous cells. If the analysis of the tumor shows that there are cancerous cells, then your doctor will order imaging tests, such as an ultrasound (to check for fluid or for a solid mass), x-rays, MRIs, CT, PET, or bone scans. The doctor will need images of your body to determine certain important things about your cancer.  Imaging tests will be used to determine if and where the cancer has spread. These tests can help the doctor detect if the cancer has spread to other areas, like the lymph nodes or other organs. A CT scan is recommended if there is suspected metastatic spread to the pelvis and thorax. Imaging tests are also used to see if the treatment is working and if the cancer is returning after treatment. Testicular cancer is divided in stages. The stage of the cancer refers to the severity of the cancer. The stage is determined from the examination of the tumor, where the cancer cells are studies in a lab. Your treatment depends on the stage of cancer, so you will always get your cancer staged when you get diagnosed.  Stage 0 testicular cancer occurs when abnormal cells are found in the testicles. The cells may evolve into cancer, but at this stage they are just abnormal. This may be something like a testicular scar. Stage I cancer is discovered after the testicle(s) is removed. Stage I cancer occurs when the cancer is either in the testicle or the membranes around the testicle. Stage I may also be in the spermatic cord or scrotum. Surgery and close monitoring may be all the treatment that is needed for stage I. Sometimes, chemotherapy or radiation is also used. Stage II cancer is when the cancer is in the testicle, scrotum, and spermatic cord, along with the lymph nodes in the abdomen. Stage II often is treated with radiation therapy. Sometimes, mild chemotherapy is also used. Stage III cancer has the same markers as stage II but has also spread to lymph nodes beyond the abdomen, to the lungs, or other parts of the body. Surgery is often needed to remove tumors in other parts of the body, along with chemotherapy. Chemotherapy may involve cisplatin based combination therapy with three cycles of  bleomycin, etoposide, and cisplatin.  However, men with compromised pulmonary function have to be careful if they are on bleomycin because this chemotherapy can cause lung injury. You will work with a treatment team when you undergo treatment for testicular cancer. Your team will vary depending on what the stage of your cancer is and your options for treating that stage.  You will probably have a urologist, physician assistant, nurses, and nurse practitioners. If you have radiation therapy, you will have a radiation oncologist. If you undergo chemotherapy, you will have a medical oncologist. You may also have social workers or other mental health professionals, physical therapists, or other professionals.
A:
Have the tumor surgically removed. Get imaging tests. Determine the stage of the cancer. Develop your treatment team.